Price Elasticity of Supply

Introduction

Price elasticity of supply (Pes) measures the relationship between change in quantity supplied and a change in price.

• If supply is elastic, producers can increase output without a rise in cost or a time delay
• If supply is inelastic, firms find it hard to change production in a given time period.

The formula for price elasticity of supply is:

Percentage change in quantity supplied divided by the percentage change in price

• When Pes > 1, then supply is price elastic
• When Pes < 1, then supply is price inelastic
• When Pes = 0, supply is perfectly inelastic
• When Pes = infinity, supply is perfectly elastic following a change in demand

What factors affect the elasticity of supply?

• Spare production capacity: If there is plenty of spare capacity then a business can increase output without a rise in costs and supply will be elastic in response to a change in demand. The supply of goods and services is most elastic during a recession, when there is plenty of spare labour and capital resources.
• Stocks of finished products and components: If stocks of raw materials and finished products are at a high level then a firm is able to respond to a change in demand - supply will be elastic. Conversely when stocks are low, dwindling supplies force prices higher because of scarcity in the market.
• The ease and cost of factor substitution: If both capital and labour are occupationally mobile then the elasticity of supply for a product is higher than if capital and labour cannot easily be switched. A good example might be a printing press which can switch easily between printing magazines and greetings cards.
• Time period and production speed: Supply is more price elastic the longer the time period that a firm is allowed to adjust its production levels. In some agricultural markets the momentary supply is fixed and is determined mainly by planting decisions made months before, and also climatic conditions, which affect the production yield. In contrast the supply of milk is price elastic because of a short time span from cows producing milk and products reaching the market place.

The non-linear supply curve

In the diagram below, the price elasticity of supply is high at low levels of demand (e.g. D1 and D2) but when demand is high, elasticity of supply is much lower (e.g. D4 and D5) – the main reason would be that at peak periods, suppliers reach capacity limits and find it hard to increase output in he short run.

Elasticity of demand and supply and price changes – a quick summary
Elasticity determines how much a shift changes quantity versus price.

• If D increases and S is perfectly inelastic, then price rises and quantity doesn't change.
• If S increases and D is perfectly inelastic, then price falls and quantity doesn't change.
• If D increases and S is perfectly elastic, then price stays the same and quantity rises.
• If S increases and D is perfectly elastic, then price stays the same and quantity rises.

Inter-relationships between Markets 

Introduction

In the real world, all markets are interconnected. Supply and demand analysis can be used to explain andinter-relationships between different markets and industries.

• In the first example we consider an increase in the supply of low-cost flights available from airports across the United Kingdom. The market supply of flights has shifted out to the right as lost cost airlines have entered the market and existing airlines have expanded their route network and fleet capacity. The result is a reduction in the real price of flights to short-haul destinations in Europe.

• A fall in the price of airline flights increases the market demand for overseas holidays (short city breaks, package holidays for example). Assuming that British tourists can choose to holiday at home or overseas and regard the two products as substitutes, then the effect is to reduce the demand for holidays in the UK – putting downward pressure on prices, profit margins and leading to the risk of excess capacity in the UK tourist industry.

Consider how rising oil prices can feed through to related markets

Derived demand

The demand for a product X might be strongly linked to the demand for a related product Y. For example, the demand for steel is strongly linked to the market demand for new cars, the construction of new buildings and many manufactured products.  In factor markets, the demand for labour is derived from the demand for the goods and services that we employ labour to produce.

Wood is a product where much of the market demand comes from the uses to which wood can be put. The breakdown of end use of wood in the UK is as follows:

Construction: 60%, Furniture: 15%, Packagaing: 15%, Fencing: 7%, Other: 3%

15 million cubic metres of wood and panel products are consumed in the UK each year, enough to fill 140,000 double-decker buses. The value of wood sold at manufacturers' selling prices was £11bn in 2011.

Composite demand

Composite demand exists where goods or services have more than one use so that an increase in the demand for one product leads to a fall in supply of the other

The most commonly quoted example is milk which can be used for cheese, yoghurts, cream, butter and other products. Another good example is land – land can be developed in many different ways

Joint supply

Joint supply describes a situation where an increase or decrease in the supply of one good leads to an increase or decrease in supply of another. For example an expansion in the volume of beef production will lead to a rising market supply of beef hides. A contraction in supply of lamb will reduce the supply of wo

Income elasticity of demand

Introduction

Income elasticity of demand measures the relationship between a change in quantity demanded for good X and a change in real income.  The formula for calculating income elasticity is:

% change in demand divided by the % change in income

Normal Goods

Normal goods have a positive income elasticity of demand so as consumers’ income rises more is demanded at each price i.e. there is an outward shift of the demand curve

Normal necessities have an income elasticity of demand of between 0 and +1 for example, if income increases by 10% and the demand for fresh fruit increases by 4% then the income elasticity is +0.4. Demand is rising less than proportionately to income.

Luxury goods and services have an income elasticity of demand > +1 i.e. demand rises more than proportionate to a change in income – for example a 8% increase in income might lead to a 10% rise in the demand for new kitchens. The income elasticity of demand in this example is +1.25.

Inferior Goods

Inferior goods have a negative income elasticity of demand meaning that demand falls as income rises. Typically inferior goods or services exist where superior goods are available if the consumer has the money to be able to buy it. Examples include the demand for cigarettes, low-priced own label foods in supermarkets and the demand for council-owned properties.

The income elasticity of demand is usually strongly positive for

• Fine wines and spirits, high quality chocolates and luxury holidays overseas.
• Sports cars
• Consumer durables - audio visual equipment, smart-phones
• Sports and leisure facilities (including gym membership and exclusive sports clubs).

In contrast, income elasticity of demand is lower for

• Staple food products such as bread, vegetables and frozen foods.
• Mass transport (bus and rail).
• Beer and takeaway pizza!
• Income elasticity of demand is negative (inferior) for cigarettes and urban bus services.
  

Product ranges and longer term trends

Income elasticity of demand will vary within a product range. For example the Yed for own-label foods in supermarkets is less for the high-value “finest” food ranges.

There is a general downward trend in the income elasticity of demand for many basic products, particularly foodstuffs. One reason is that as a society becomes richer, there are changes in tastes and preferences. What might have been considered a luxury good several years ago might now be regarded as a necessity? How many of you regard a Sky sports subscription or an iPhone5, an iPad2 or a new Blackberry as a necessity?

The table below shows estimated price and income elasticity of demand for a selection of foods:

Product	Share of budget (% of household income)	Price elasticity of demand (Ped)	Income elasticity of demand (Yed)
All Foods	15.1	n/a	0.2
Fruit juices	0.19	-0.55	0.45
Tea	0.19	-0.37	-0.02
Instant coffee	0.17	-0.45	0.16
Source: DEFRA www.defra.gov.uk

The income elasticity of demand for most types of food is low – occasionally negative (e.g. for margarine) and likewise the own price elasticity of demand for most foodstuffs is also inelastic.

How do businesses make use of estimates of income elasticity of demand?

Knowledge of income elasticity of demand helps firms predict the effect of an economic cycle on sales.Luxury products with high income elasticity see greater sales volatility over the business cycle thannecessities where demand from consumers is less sensitive to changes in the cycle.

Income elasticity and the pattern of consumer demand

As we become better off, we can afford to increase our spending on different goods and services. Theincome elasticity of demand will also affect the pattern of demand over time.

• For normal luxury goods - income elasticity of demand exceeds +1, so as incomes rise, the proportion of a consumer’s income spent on that product will go up.
• For normal necessities (income elasticity of demand is positive but less than 1) and for inferior goods (where the income elasticity of demand is negative) – then as income rises, the share or proportion of their budget on these products will fall
• For inferior goods as income rise, demand will decline and so too will the share of income spent on inferior products.

A good example of a product with a negative income elasticity of demand is tobacco products. Many factors affect demand for cigarettes and related products – not least the level of indirect tax placed on them by the government and also the effects of health campaigns and bans on smoking in public places.

Even allowing for this, as the chart above shows, real spending on tobacco has fallen in nearly every year since 1980 and is now less than half the level at the start of the 1980s.

Case study: Demand in a recession – counter-cyclical products

At first thought, most people assume that recession can only spell bad things for businesses. However, there are a good number of examples of industries that thrive when times are hard. Some produce inferior goods; some goods that are cheap substitutes for more luxury items; some equip households with the ability to repair rather than replace. Inferior goods are those for which demand rises when income falls. The typical examples discussed in class are usually things such as bus tickets and supermarket value ranges. Demand for inferior goods is, by its nature, counter-cyclical. A recent article in The Times analysed the effects of recession on the sale of McDonald’s’ “Extra Value Meals” (EMVs):
“As the effects of recession continued to be felt...the lure of fast food at McDonald’s, as an alternative to more expensive eating out, proved irresistible to many consumers...in Britain, McDonald’s attracted 8% more customers in its third quarter”.
Other fast-food companies that have seen similar rises in demand include KFC and Pizza Hut. In a similar vein, sales of caravans have soared in the UK, as people have chosen to ‘staycation’ rather than travel abroad. Demand for second hand caravans has been high, and surprisingly, many of the consumers are young, first-time caravan-buyers. The Camping and Caravanning Club saw a record 53,000 new members in 2008 with a 21% rise in bookings, and The Caravan Club (a competitor) saw its bookings rise by 17%.
Demand for a number of other goods rises in recessions, yet these goods are not really ‘inferior’. Take lipstick sales, for example. Recent analysis suggests that sales of lipstick rise in times of recession or low consumer confidence, the reason being that women substitute more expensive purchases (clothes, handbags, shoes etc) for lipstick which is relatively cheaper yet can provide a morale boost.
Condom sales are another example. An article in USA Today earlier in the year stated that sales of condoms rose by 5% in the last quarter of 2008 compared with the previous year, and nearly 3% in the first quarter of 2009 compared with the same time in 2008. The effect was even more pronounced in the UK, with one report suggesting that sales of Durex have so far risen by 22% over the course of the recession! Two reasons for the link with recession have been given; firstly, staying in is cheaper than going out, and secondly, households are more concerned with the potential cost of having children.
As well as these more ‘active’ pursuits, many more people are staying in and enjoying a night on the sofa with takeaway pizza. Domino’s Pizza, the UK’s largest pizza delivery chain, has seen market growth of 8.3% over the past year according to their own figures. Their sales growth has been further boosted by increased advertising, since advertising fees have fallen dramatically as advertising companies have lowered prices to retain business.
Demand has also risen for ‘DIY’ related goods. Households are choosing to repair broken items such as cars or household equipment rather than replace. Sales of fruit and vegetable seeds also increased in the early part of 2009 as more people took advantage of the growing season. A number of examples of ‘counter-cyclical’ sales have been given here. There are many more. Use of these examples is a great way of introducing evaluation into exam answers relating to the effects of recession.

Source: Ruth Tarrant, EconoMax, December 2009

Price Elasticity

Price elasticity of demand

Price elasticity of demand measures the responsiveness of demand after  a change in price

The formula for calculating the co-efficient of elasticity of demand is:

Percentage change in quantity demanded divided by the percentage change in price

 Since changes in price and quantity usually move in opposite directions, usually we do not bother to put in the minus sign. We are more concerned with the co-efficient of elasticity of demand.

Example: Demand for rail services

At peak times, the demand for rail transport becomes inelastic – and higher prices are charged by rail companies who can then achieve higher revenues and profits

Values for price elasticity of demand

1. If Ped = 0 demand is perfectly inelastic - demand does not change at all when the price changes – the demand curve will be vertical.
2. If Ped is between 0 and 1 (i.e. the % change in demand from A to B is smaller than the percentage change in price), then demand is inelastic.
3. If Ped = 1 (i.e. the % change in demand is exactly the same as the % change in price), then demand isunit elastic. A 15% rise in price would lead to a 15% contraction in demand leaving total spending the same at each price level.
4. If Ped > 1, then demand responds more than proportionately to a change in price i.e. demand is elastic. For example if a 10% increase in the price of a good leads to a 30% drop in demand. The price elasticity of demand for this price change is –3

Factors affecting price elasticity of demand

• The number of close substitutes – the more close substitutes there are in the market, the more elastic is demand because consumers find it easy to switch
• The cost of switching between products – there may be costs involved in switching. In this case, demand tends to be inelastic. For example, mobile phone service providers may insist on a12 month contract.
• The degree of necessity or whether the good is a luxury – necessities tend to have an inelastic demand whereas luxuries tend to have a more elastic demand.
• The proportion of a consumer’s income allocated to spending on the good – products that take up a high % of income will have a more elastic demand
• The time period allowed following a price change – demand is more price elastic, the longer that consumers have to respond to a price change. They have more time to search for cheaper substitutes and switch their spending.
• Whether the good is subject to habitual consumption – consumers become less sensitive to the price of the good of they buy something out of habit (it has become the default choice).
• Peak and off-peak demand - demand is price inelastic at peak times and more elastic at off-peak times – this is particularly the case for transport services.
• The breadth of definition of a good or service – if a good is broadly defined, i.e. the demand for petrol or meat, demand is often inelastic. But specific brands of petrol or beef are likely to be more elastic following a price change.

Demand curves with different price elasticity of demand

Elasticity of demand and total revenue for a producer / supplier

 The relationship between elasticity of demand and a firm’s total revenue is an important one.

• When demand is inelastic – a rise in price leads to a rise in total revenue –  a 20% rise in price might cause demand to contract by only 5% (Ped  = -0.25)

• When demand is elastic  – a fall in price leads to a rise in total revenue - for example a 10% fall in price might cause demand to expand by only 25% (Ped  = +2.5)

Peak and Off-Peak Demand and Prices

Why are prices for package holidays more expensive during school holiday weeks? Why are rail fares more expensive at peak times? During peak demand periods, market demand is higher and also more price inelastic. This allows producers to sell their products for higher prices and make increased profits.

The table below gives an example of the relationships between prices; quantity demanded and total revenue. As price falls, the total revenue initially increases, in our example the maximum revenue occurs at a price of £12 per unit when 520 units are sold giving total revenue of £6240.

Price	Quantity	Total Revenue	Marginal Revenue
£ per unit	Units	£s	£s
20	200	4000
18	280	5040	13
16	360	5760	9
14	440	6160	5
12	520	6240	1
10	600	6000	-3
8	680	5440	-7
6	760	4560	-11

Consider the elasticity of demand of a price change from £20 per unit to £18 per unit. The % change in demand is 40% following a 10% change in price – giving an elasticity of demand of -4 (i.e. highly elastic).

In this situation when demand is price elastic, a fall in price leads to higher total consumer spending / producer revenue

Consider a price change further down the estimated demand curve – from £10 per unit to £8 per unit. The % change in demand = 13.3% following a 20% fall in price – giving a co-efficient of elasticity of – 0.665 (i.e. inelastic). A fall in price when demand is price inelastic leads to a reduction in total revenue.

Change in the market	What happens to total revenue?
Ped is inelastic and a firm raises its price.	Total revenue increases
Ped is elastic and a firm lowers its price.	Total revenue increases
Ped is elastic and a firm raises price.	Total revenue decreases
Ped is -1.5 and the firm raises price by 4%	Total revenue decreases
Ped is -0.4 and the firm raises price by 30%	Total revenue increases
Ped is -0.2 and the firm lowers price by 20%	Total revenue decreases
Ped is -4.0 and the firm lowers price by 15%	Total revenue increases

Elasticity of demand and indirect taxation

Many products are subject to indirect taxes. Good examples include the duty on cigarettes (cigarette taxes in the UK are among the highest in Europe) alcohol and fuel. Here we consider the effects of indirect taxes on costs and the importance of elasticity of demand in determining the effects of a tax on price and quantity.

A tax increases the costs of a business causing an inward shift in supply. The vertical distance between the pre-tax and the post-tax supply curve shows the tax per unit. With an indirect tax, the supplier may be able to pass on some or all of this tax to the consumer by raising price. This is known as shifting the burden of the tax and this depends on the elasticity of demand and supply.

Consider the two charts above.

• In the left hand diagram, the demand curve is drawn as price elastic. The producer must absorb the majority of the tax itself (i.e. accept a lower profit margin on each unit sold). When demand is elastic, the effect of a tax is still to raise the price – but we see a bigger fall in equilibrium quantity. Output has fallen from Q to Q1 due to a contraction in demand.
• In the right hand diagram, demand is drawn as price inelastic (i.e. Ped <1 over most of the range of this demand curve) and therefore the producer is able to pass on most of the tax to the consumer through a higher price without losing too much in the way of sales. The price rises from P1 to P2 – but a large rise in price leads only to a small contraction in demand from Q1 to Q2.

Example: Will price cuts work for Sony?
Sony is cutting the price of its PlayStation 3 gaming console by nearly a fifth, hoping to jump-start sales of a five-year old device losing ground to Microsoft's Xbox. The price tag on the 160 GB version has fallen to £200 in the UK and from €299 to €249 in Europe

News reports, Aug 2011.

The usefulness of price elasticity for producers

Firms can use PED estimates to predict:

• The effect of a change in price on the total revenue & expenditure on a product.
• The price volatility in a market following changes in supply – this is important for commodity producers who suffer big price and revenue shifts from one time period to another.
• The effect of a change in an indirect tax on price and quantity demanded and also whether the business is able to pass on some or all of the tax onto the consumer.
• Information on the PED can be used by a business as part of a policy of price discrimination. This is where a supplier decides to charge different prices for the same product to different segments of the market e.g. peak and off peak rail travel or prices charged by many of our domestic and international airlines.
• Usually a business will charge a higher price to consumers whose demand for the product is price inelastic

Price elasticity of demand and changing market prices

The price elasticity of demand will influence the effects of shifts in supply on price and quantity in a market. This is illustrated in the next two diagrams.

In the left hand diagram below we have drawn a highly elastic demand curve. We see an outward shift of supply – which leads to a large rise in equilibrium price and quantity and only a relatively small change in the market price.

In the right hand diagram, a similar increase in supply is drawn together with an inelastic demand curve. Here the effect is more on the price. There is a sharp fall in the price and only a relatively small expansion in the equilibrium quantity.

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gcse Economic Development - Role of the Private Sector

Economic Development - Role of the Private Sector

Introduction

To what extent can private sector businesses and corporations be a key driver of growth and development in many of the world’s poorer developing countries? Free-market approaches favour giving a larger role to private sector enterprises with liberalization of markets, structural economic reforms to boost incentives for people and businesses and increased transparency and accountability for government given a key focus.

““In Dubai we don’t believe in planning or what you call industrial policy. We believe in the free market.” (CEO of Dubai Chamber of Commerce, 2011)

Growing the Private Sector

The Washington Consensus

The Washington Consensus was a term first coined in 1989 in the wake of the Latin American financial crisis and over the years it has become a highly contentious canvas on which supporters and protestors of western-style globalisation have battled.

According to John Williamson, the economist who came up with the idea of the Washington Consensus it comprised a group of market-friendly policy prescriptions favouring the private sector including:

• Fiscal discipline - keeping control of government budget deficits and national debt
• Reallocating state spending from subsidies towards health care, education & infrastructure.
• Tax reform - widening the base of taxation and encouraging lower tax rates to boost enterprise and work incentives as a means of creating wealth
• Liberalising interest rates - allowing financial markets more freedom in setting interest rates on savings and loans and letting market interest rates allocate capital among competing uses
• Exchange rates – supports a choice of fixed or free floating exchange rates but a preference against "dirty floating" i.e. intervention to manipulate the value of a currency
• Trade liberalisation - a gradual reduction in import tariffs and other forms of protectionism – trade seen as an important engine of growth and development
• Liberalization of inward foreign direct investment - capital investment between countries
• Privatization - transferring state-owned enterprises into the private sector
• Deregulation - lowering entry and exit barriers in markets but not at the expense of necessary regulation of aspects such as working conditions and employment rights
• Property rights - protecting intellectual and other rights to encourage innovation and risk-taking

Criticisms of Private Sector Dominated Growth

The Washington Consensus has come under sustained criticism even though private-sector friendly policies in many countries have contributed to an increase in trade and investment much of which has flowed into lower-income developing countries. However, development driven by the private sector has been criticised on several different grounds – some of suspicions about the private sector include the following:

Supporters of the private sector have a firm belief that the wealth generated from private sector activity and investment can have a huge positive effect on prospects for countries at every stage of development.

This quote taken from the UK government website captures this view:

“The private sector is the engine of economic growth - creating jobs, increasing trade, providing goods and services to the poor and generating tax revenue to fund basic public services such as health and education. As well as stimulating growth, new thinking within the private sector, shaped by the market, can also offer insights in to how to ensure better access to vital services or goods such as medicines or information.”

Case Study: Tullow Oil and African Development

Tullow Oil plc is Africa’s leading independent oil exploration business. It has approximately 100 production and exploration licenses in 22 countries. Tullow Oil is an oil exploration business - their job is to find oil and use the latest technologies and top-level human capital both to find oil, drill the wells and eventually bring oil to the ground.

Basic background on Tullow:

• Operations in over 22 countries, employ 1,400+ people
• Explore, appraise, develop and produce oil and gas
• €1 billion+ operating profit in 2011
• No.27 in the FTSE 100 (the business is listed on the UK stock market), market value of £14 billion
• Capital spending (investment) in 2011 of $1.4 billion

Tullow Oil is playing an important role in the broader economic development of Ghana and especially the investment in the Jubilee Field in a country that had no pre-existing infrastructure or deep-water technology in the oil exploration and extraction business.

The capital intensity of Tullow’s operations is breath-taking. Dropping a well in the Jubilee Field cost $100 million and it took a further $3.5 billion to get the oil flowing to the surface. The oil field was developed in a record 40 months - to put that into context, it usually takes over seven years from oil being discovered to a new field being developed. The first oil extraction took place in December 2010 and Ghana is now a world-class oil producing country with the potential for a transformational effect on their growth and development prospects. Tullow employs over 250 people in Ghana; over 85% are Ghanaian and over 1,500 contracts awarded to Ghanaian contractors.

Crucial to Tullow’s success is in recruiting some of the top geologists in the world - they employ over 200 of them and they are a major recruiter of geo-scientists from top universities. The quality of their human capital is essential and they have worked closely with University College Dublin to develop industry-specific courses and build up an expertise that few other players in the industry can enjoy. Many of Tullow’s African employees come to the UK to study on scholarships and who are frequently top of the class beating their Far East Asian counterparts.

Non-Financial Trans-National Corporations (TNCs) from Developing Countries

Corporation	Home economy	Industry
Hutchison Whampoa Limited	Hong Kong, China	Diversified
CITIC Group	China	Diversified
Cemex S.A.	Mexico	Non-metalic mineral products
Samsung Electronics Co., Ltd.	Korea, Republic of	Electrical & electronic equipment
Petronas - Petroliam Nasional Bhd	Malaysia	Petroleum expl./ref./distr.
Hyundai Motor Company	Korea, Republic of	Motor vehicles
China Ocean Shipping (Group) Company	China	Transport and storage
Lukoil	Russian Federation	Petroleum and natural gas
Vale S.A	Brazil	Mining & quarrying
Petróleos De Venezuela	Venezuela	Petroleum expl./ref./distr.
Zain	Kuwait	Telecommunications
Jardine Matheson Holdings Ltd	Hong Kong, China	Diversified
Singtel Ltd.	Singapore	Telecommunications
Formosa Plastics Group	Taiwan Province of China	Chemicals
Tata Steel Ltd.	India	Metal and metal products
Petroleo Brasileiro S.A. - Petrobras	Brazil	Petroleum expl./ref./distr.
Hon Hai Precision Industries	Taiwan Province of China	Electrical & electronic equipment
Metalurgica Gerdau S.A.	Brazil	Metal and metal products
Abu Dhabi National Energy Company	United Arab Emirates	Utilities (Electricity, gas and water)
Oil And Natural Gas Corporation	India	Petroleum expl./ref./distr.
MTN Group Limited	South Africa	Telecommunications
LG Corp.	Korea, Republic of	Electrical & electronic equipment

Non-Financial TNCs (World)

Corporation	Home economy	Industry
General Electric	United States	Electrical & electronic equipment
Royal Dutch/Shell Group	United Kingdom	Petroleum expl./ref./distr.
Vodafone Group Plc	United Kingdom	Telecommunications
BP PLC	United Kingdom	Petroleum expl./ref./distr.
Toyota Motor Corporation	Japan	Motor vehicles
ExxonMobil Corporation	United States	Petroleum expl./ref./distr.
Total SA	France	Petroleum expl./ref./distr.
E.On	Germany	Utilities (Electricity, gas and water)
Electricite De France	France	Utilities (Electricity, gas and water)
ArcelorMittal	Luxembourg	Metal and metal products
Volkswagen Group	Germany	Motor vehicles
GDF Suez	France	Utilities (Electricity, gas and water)
Anheuser-Busch Inbev SA	Netherlands	Food, beverages and tobacco
Chevron Corporation	United States	Petroleum expl./ref./distr.
Siemens AG	Germany	Electrical & electronic equipment
Ford Motor Company	United States	Motor vehicles
Eni Group	Italy	Petroleum expl./ref./distr.
Telefonica SA	Spain	Telecommunications
Deutsche Telekom AG	Germany	Telecommunications

Land Grabs – Private Sector Investment in Land

Land Grabs have become an important and controversial issue in development economics in recent years. Throughout the world, it is estimated that 445 million hectares of land are uncultivated and available for farming, compared with about 1.5 billion hectares already under cultivation. About 201 million hectares are in sub-Saharan Africa.

• The vast majority of land deals are for agricultural projects. Forestry is the next largest sector. Of the agricultural deals, fewer than 30% are for food crops alone. Almost 20% are for non-food crops such as bio-fuels and livestock feed.

Arguments in favour of land purchases

The buying of land by transnational investors / companies is viewed favorably by some economists. They see it as an opportunity to reverse under-investment in developing countries’ agricultural sectors, tocreate new jobs, and to bring improved technology to local farming industries that will boost productivity, raise farm incomes and reduce the extreme poverty.

Criticisms of land grabs

Opponents of “land grabs,” argue that transnational land buyers neglect local rights and do not pay a fair price for the land. They seek to extract short-term profits at the cost of long-term environmental sustainability. They claim that land grabs are closely connected to corruption on a large scale. Another argument is that selling thousands of hectares to large-scale investors hurts small-scale farmers. Mechanized farming reduces employment in labour-intensive farming and can accelerate forced migrationinto urban areas.

A report published by Oxfam in 2011 claimed that much of the farm land bought by western investors in recent years has been left idle or given over to bio-fuel production for motorists in rich nations instead of being used to grow food and reduce malnutrition among the poorest communities

According to development economist Professor Paul Collier there are two main types of land grab:

• Pioneer commercial investment: buying unused land at low prices to see if it is viable for production; risky but high-gain. Increases factor productivity; if successful, draws others – as such, it should be encouraged because there is a net benefit
• Speculative acquisition of large areas of useless land: may not stay useless – it has an option value. The investor hopes that the land will become useful in the long run (e.g. because of climate issues), causing the market value to rise.

Paul Collier believes that the 1st type beneficial to developing countries but the 2nd is not. Some countries are introducing legislation to constrain overseas buyers of land.

From January 2013, Tanzania will start restricting the size of land that single large-scale foreign and local investors can "lease" for agricultural use. The vast majority of Tanzanian small-scale farmers do not have legal protection for their property. Tanzania has an estimated population of 42 million people and 12,000 villages, but only 0.02% of its citizens have traditional land ownership titles.

gcse economics - tools of the trade: taxation - why use it?

1. To collect money to pay for Government expenditure. In 2002 it will collect approximately £400 billion. This will be spent on health, education, social security, roads etc.

2. To influence buying patterns. High taxes on cigarettes discourage smoking. Taxes on petrol encourage motorist to buy less fuel.

3. To help redistribute income between individuals. It is highly likely that high earners will pay more income tax and VAT, this is because they earn and spend more. If this money is given to the poor and unemployed in the form of benefits it has been redistributed.

4. To manage the economy
(a) Increasing the level of income tax will usually slow down the economy. This is because people pay more tax, have less disposable income and buy fewer goods. This is a policy for slowing down inflation.

Increase income tax
> People pay more tax out their wage
> their disposable income falls
> they are able to buy fewer goods
> less demand in the economy
> helps to control inflation / price rises

(b) Decreasing the level of income tax will usually ‘kickstart’ the economy. This is because people pay less tax, have more disposable income and buy more goods. This is a policy for increasing economic growth and reducing unemployment.

Decrease income tax
> People pay less tax out of their wages
> their disposable income increases
> they can buy more goods
> more demand in the economy
> helps economic growth and reduces unemployment

 ACTION

A About 70% of the price of a pint of alcohol is tax. What are the arguments for and against this?
B Try to explain why a reduction in income tax will kickstart the economy
C How could income tax redistribute income? Should the tax be progressive or regressive?

 SMART THINKING

D Would you be more likely to tax a price inelastic or price elastic good?